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Brief History of Bali

The Balinese people, descendants of a prehistoric race who migrated through mainland Asia to the Indonesian archipelago, have been influenced by a series of rich and highly developed civilizations. Yet, to this day, they retain their own total individuality, having absorbed and adapted those parts of each dominating civilization, which suit their own spiritual and creative values. The first inflows of changes recorded were due to Indian trades and travelers who brought with them in Hindu learning and religion. The rulers of primitive, animist Bali found these teachings suited them and their people perfectly, with the concept of the God-King, who exercised a divine law and spiritual leadership, and created a glorious palace in which the arts were fostered, fitting perfectly over the existing systems of monarchy. The most persuasive influence of Hinduism came from nearby Java, who Airlangga, the son of a Balinese king, became part of the court of a Javanese emperor, who he was later succeed, inaugurating a period of very close political and cultural contacts which lasted for centuries. With the fall of the Madjapahit kingdom to Islamic influences, many thousand of Hindu priests, nobles, soldiers, artists, and artisans fled from Java to Bali to escape their Muslim conquerors. This gave a fresh impetus to the already strongly Hinduized culture, which continued to flourish. The fallen Madjapahit Emperor reestablished court in Gelgel, near Klungkung, dividing extensive land amongst his followers, who set up their own courts in different parts of Bali, it wasn't long before jealousies and rivalries led to divisions, and tumultuous years of bitter warfare between the various kingdoms followed.

Up until this stage few western contacts had been made with the island. In 1585 a Portuguese ship, intent on a mission to build a fort and set up a trading post in Bali, foundered off the coast of Bukit, and most of the ship's company were drowned. Twelve years later, the Dutch explorer Cornelius de Houtman, paid a visit, and the record of this visit was the first substantial amount of information about Bali to reach the western world. The Dutch were suitably amazed by the vast riches of the Dewa Agung and his court, his 200 wives and innumerable followers. Despite the intermittent visits of Dutch merchants Bali was relatively neglected by the European world unt8l the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Assorted French and English interest tried for many years to obtain a foothold in Bali unsuccessfully, which only served to alert the Dutch to the potential existing within the island. Civil war and anarchy were rife amongst the royal courts, and a period of cloudy history ensued, of which few accurate accounts are available. Continual attempts were made by the Dutch to force the Rajas of Bali to recognize the sovereignty of the Netherlands in return for protection against their enemies, but in general, despite a multitude of documents which were duly signed and witnessed, (although never translated into Balinese), they met with general animosity. The looting of shipwrecks off the coast of Bali, which the Balinese considered their age old right, continued as ever, despite the rage of the Dutch authorities, and no peaceful settlement was obtained. It was at the court of Buleleng that the general sentiments of the Balinese were finally expressed to the Dutch Commissioner, visiting Bali to demand ratification for the latest reef incidents in 1844

In words that were to immortalize him as the modern hero of Bali, Gusti Ketut Djelantik, the younger brother of the Raja of Buleleng and Karangasem, told the Dutch Commissioner : "Never while I live shall the state recognize the sovereignty of the Netherlands in the sense in which you interpret it, Not by a mere scrap of paper shall any man become the master of another's lands. Rather let the Kris Decide". Both parties realized, upon the delivery of this impetuous message, that war was not far away. The Dutch began readying an expeditionary force, and the Balinese began making military preparations. Once the powerful Dutch army set out to subdue Bali the ultimate outcome was obvious, but little did they realize at what expense. It took three campaigns and sixty odd years to shatter the Balineese defenses and morale, campaigns in which the Dutch did not always by any means achieve either victory or glory. There were a number of tragic "puputan" battles in which the Raja, his entire royal court, women and children plunged into battle, armed with kris and spear, killing each other on the battle field rather than be taken captive. These rather shocking events had great psychological effect on the Dutch, and from then on they ruled in Bali with a lenient hand, doing their best to keep to an "ethical" policy, and a whole new generation of administrators developed, who regarded themselves not only as the agents of modernization in education, health and administrative service, but as the protectors of Balis's own traditional culture. They introduced clinics and schools, abolished slavery and suttee, built roads, bridges, dams, and imposed law and order. However, they also did great damage to Balinese political and economic self-sufficiency, and also to Balinese pride and self-confidence.

In accordance with their policy of cultural conservationist, the Dutch Residency was reluctant to allow evangelists and missionaries to practice in Bali. There were also concerned about the effects of opening the door to international tourism. Out of concern for the publicity which Bali was receiving overseas they announced that the women of Denpasar should cover their breast in public, and on several occasions foreigners who were thought to be negatively influencing the island's youth were exiled.

Actual organized tourism came to Bali in the 1920's. by 1930 up to 100 visitors a month were arriving, mostly by sea, and their ecstatic reports were so positive that by 1940 this figure had increased to about 250 per month. Not including the passengers on the cruise ships Stella Pollaris, Lurline, Franconia, Empress of Britain, Reliance and others that advertised a day or two in Bali as the highlight of their winter schedules.

On the day that cruise ships arrived in Bali, carloads of sightseers bumped their way around the island over the limited roads, and huge 20-course Rijstaffel luncheons were hosted at the Bali Hotel in Denpasar. The cost per person in those days was about US$ 3.50 per day-trip. For longer staying guests travel agents provided 5- to 7 passengers Essex of Hudson motor cars at prices ranging from US$ 2.50 or the luxury Bali Hotel at US$ 7.50 a double, including meals.

The Dutch Steamship Line, K.P.M., initiated the first tourist passages to Bali on its cargo ships which regularly visited Buleleng to pick up loads of copra, cattle, coffee and pigs.

Several enterprising characters were quick to take advantage of these developments. A Persian-Armenian, M.J. Minas, was the first to realize the tourist potential. Mr. Minas, a kinetic cinemas who introduced western moving pictures to the villages, traveling with a portable projector, and established the first theatre n Buleleng, started picking up passengers off the K.P.M. hip in about 1920. And American adventurer, Andre Roosevelt, arrived in Bali in 1924 and joined Mr. Mina, bringing American Express and Thos. Cook patronage with him. Mah Patimah, local notoreity reputed to be one of the wives of the late Dewa Agung who escaped from the funeral pyre and the honorable tradition of suttee, built up a profitable silver business and a fleet of taxis. She used to have herself rowed out to sea to meat each ship bearing a bunch of flowers and a bottle.

An Anglo-American romantic, Miss Manx, (eventually to become famous as Surabaya Sue, a radio propagandist for the Japanese in World II, and then as K'tut Tantri, author of a highly imaginitive autobiography Revolt in Paradise) joined with an American named Robert Koke in opening the first small beach hotel at Kuta. She soon parted with Mr Koke and built a much more exotic hotel of her own nearby. Much to the discomfort of K.P.M. she made it her practice to visit the Bali Hotel and lure away their clients with stories of her seaside paradise.

By this tie K.P.M. had opened a tourist office in Buleleng (1925), bought the government rest-house in Denpasar and established the Bali Hotel 91928), as well as acquiring the Kintamani government rest-house as a mountain stopover. By the 1930's they had taken over American Express and Thos. Cook, and virtually dominated the tourist scene.

Pre-war tourists nearly always came by sea, landing at Buleleng on the north coast, or Padang Bai in the south. It wasn't until the 1930's that the ferry service between Banjuwangi and Gilimanuk was started up by two enterprising Germans, and a road was built connecting Gilimanuk to Denpasar.

Air travel became possible in the 1930's, but it was very risky, the first survey flight made by the Royal Netherlands Indies Airways crashed into Mount Batukau, and the first airport, built in Bukit, was too dangerous for landing except in the calmest weather.

In 1938 a new airport was built at Tuban on the site of the present airport, and Bali became an overnight stop on the weekly K.N.I.L.M. flights to Australia and Makassar.

Most of the earlier tourist came to Bali for only a few days' stopover. A number of expatriates, artists, writers, aesthetes and intellectuals fascinated by the culture come to stay.

The most famous was perhaps the German musician and painter, Walter Spies, who settled in Bali until the war broke out. His exquisite paintings introduce a new aesthetics which the Balinese were quick to respond to and adopt. He was joined in the early 1930's by the German novelist, Vicki Baum, who wrote "Tale of Bali" one of the classics of the Balinese studies. Miguel Covarrubias, the Mexican artist-anthropologist and his wife also settled in the Ubud area to create the great study, "Island of Bali", which remains unrivalled today as an exposition of Balinese culture. Also came Colin McPhee and his wife Jane Belo, who wrote "A House in Bali" , and "Trance in Bali" respectively, and Margaret Mead with her husband, Gregory Bateson, who made important antrhropological studies. The Dutch painter Rudolph Bonnet, Swiss Theo Meyer and the Belgian Le Mayeur de Perpres came to live in Bali, each creating and contributing to the development of painting which still flourishes on the island.

Jack and Katherine Mershon, two American dancesr, settled in Sanur. Jack was an accomplished photographer an Katherine was later to publish a book, "Seven Plus Seven" of her researches and experiences of Balinese ritual. Recently, in October 1986, the late Katherine's ashes were sent to Bali for the final ritual in the Balinese life-cycle ceremonies that she so vividly portrayed in her book, so fulfilling her final wish.

On these early visitors, the island of Bali and its culture had a catalysing effect. The subsequent insight, empathy and understanding led to some of the most valuable documentation and literature ever produced about Bali.

However, a black cloud was already looming upon the horizon; idyll was about to be shattered. War in the Pacific was gaining tempo. On February 18th, 1942, a small force of Japanese soldiers landed at Sanur, and took over from the demoralized Dutch garrison. The victorious Japanese ruled Bali for three years, very much in accordance with the already established Dutch system. They did not actively intervene in Balinese affairs, but he effects of their compulsory requisition of rice and foodstuff were far-reaching and by the time the war ended the Balinese were suffering from severe privations and facing both famine and epidemic.

During the Japanese occupation, which fostered a repressive atmosphere ripe for rebellion, a charismatic young military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, began to gather together a Balinese "freedom army". He took the remnants of the military forces, combined them with new recruits and volunteers began training them in soldiery and tactics. His motto, "merdeka atau mati", fredom or death was to ironically seal his fate as both hero and martyr of the independence movement. Th bombing of Hisorhima and Nagasaki resulted in the capitulation of the Japanese High Command, and on August 17, `945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesia to be an Independent nation. The remaining Japanese in Bali withdrew, and the local Balinese leaders moved quickly to occupy the provincial offices and residences.

The Dutch, however, were not yet willing to relinquish their pre-war powers. They arrived back in force and proceeded to make arrests, attempting to re-establish the colonial administration, meeting with unexpected resistance from Ngurah Rai and his followers. After a series of guerilla type confrontations which served to arouse the wrath of the Dutch, Ngurah Rai finally rallied his forces in east Bali at Margarana, where they made a suicide attack on the heavily armed Dutch. The Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance.

In 1946 the Dutch constituted Bali one of the 13 administrative districts of the Republic of East Indonesia, A rival state to the revolutionary republic headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Continued rebellion in Java, however finally induced The Hague to concede Indonesia independence. Bali became part of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on Des. 29, 1949. In 1956 Bali renounced the Dutch union and became a province within the Republic of Indonesia.

Transition from colonialism to independence was not easy, and by 1956 the whole of Indonesia, led by the charismatic President Sukarno, was undergoing a tumultuous, difficult period. Economic conditions had seriously deteriorated and the Communist party was growing in power. Rice was I short supply, and inflation was rife. In 1962 an extremely bad omen augured further disaster. Plagues of rats infested the islands' fields and granaries. In early 1963, as the people of Bali began to prepare for the celebration of Eka Dasa Rudra, the most sacred of all Balinese temple festivals, signs were still particularly ominous, and the priests and elders were gravely concerned.

On February 18th, 1963 Besakih tempel was being readied for an influx of devotees and official guests when Mt. Agung suddenly began to spurt ash and smoke, and earthquake shook the island.

On march 12th, in the mid of ceremonies at Besakih, the volcano, for centuries dormant, began spewing mud and rock and by the end of the week great rivers of molten lava were flowing down the mountainside. Smoke and volcanic ash darkened the island under a gray cloud. The Besakih temple complex miraculously escaped the main line of destruction, although many of the thatched shrines were burnt, and the entire complex was buried in deep layers of ash. Many died, and for months famine prevailed over wide areas. Entire villages were wipe out, and thousands of hectares of farmland ruined. The worst was not yet over. The island was in the throes of recovery in late 1965 when the Communist Party staged an abortive coup d'etat in Jakarta, and reprisals began all over Indonesia as the Nationalists set out to extinguish all traces of communism. Bali was the scene of incredible violence, and thousands of people were killed.

The terrible events of the early and middle 60's are rather forgotten by the Balinese, who prefer not to dwell on the past. With the government of President Suharto major reforms in the administration have been carried out. Indonesia is in the throes of a vigor of development to which Bali contributes considerably as a rich source of international tourism. The Government is wisely trying to limit negative effect of this influx, at the same time as encouraging benefits such as the revival of many of the performing arts. Bali's resilient culture has so far survived colonialism, natural and political disaster, and there is no reason to think it will not continue to flourish in the future.

The Balinese welcome visitors and they welcome tourism, both as a means of increasing prosperity and of promoting understanding of their heritage. They feel that they can embrace modernity without jeopardizing their traditions. The cohesive bonds of religion, family ties and community life provide a sound base with which to meet the challenges that the future will bring. Perhaps the example of Bali's harmonious society can still serve to contribute something of value to the outside world.

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